Archaeological evidence suggests Burma is quite old. The Mon people are thought to be the earliest group to migrate into the lower Ayeyarwady Valley and by the mid-900’s BC was dominant in southern Burma. The Tibeto-Burman speaking Pyu arrived later in the 1st century BC, establishing several city states, Sri Ksetra being the most powerful. The Mon and Pyu kingdoms were an active overland trade route between India and China. The Pyu kingdoms entered a period of rapid decline in early 9th century AD when the powerful kingdom of Nanzhao (in present-day Yunan) invaded the Ayeyarwady valley several times.
Tibeto-Burman speaking Burmans, or the Bamar, began migrating to the Ayeyarwady valley from present-day Yunnan’s Nanzhao kingdom starting in 7th century AD. Filling the power gaps left by the Pyu, the Burman s established a small kingdom centered in Bagan in 849. It was not until the reign of King Anawrahta (1044-1077) that Bagan’s influence expanded throughout much of present-day Burma.
After Anawrahta’s capture of the Mon capital of Thaton in 1057, the Burman adopted Theravada Buddhism from the Mons. The Burmese script was created, based on the Mon script, during the reign of King Kyanzittha (1084-1112). Prosperous from trade, Bagan kings built many magnificent temples and pagodas throughout the country—many of which are there today.
Bagan’s power slowly waned in the 13th century. Kublai Khan’s Mongol forces invaded northern Burma starting in 1277, and sacked Bagan city itself in 1287. Bagan’s over two century reign of Ayeyarwady valley and surrounding areas was over.
The Mongols could not stay for long in the searing heat, but the Tai-Shan people from Yunnan who came down with the Mongols fanned out in the valley, and became powerful players in Southeast Asia. The Bagan Empire was broken into several smaller kingdoms, including the Burman kingdom of Ava or Innwa, the Mon kingdom of Hanthawady Pegu or Bago, the Rakhine kingdom of Mrauk, and several Shan states. This period was characterized by constant warfare, and by the late 15th century, this warfare left the area greatly weakened. In 1527, Shans finally captured Ava, allowing the Shans to rule Upper Bruma until 1555. The Taungoo kingdom ruled much of the area from 1531-1752, and then the Konbaung kingdom had power until 1884.
In 1884, the British gained complete control over Burma after sixty years of war. During British colonial rule, ethnic tensions were aggravated as certain ethnic groups were favored over others. The Burma territory was inhabited by several ethnic groups, including the Burman, Shan, Karen, Kachin, Karenni, Chin, Mon, Rakhaing and others. Burmese nationalist, led by General Aung San and 29 other “Comrades,” fought the British for independence during the final years of World War II and demanded complete political and economic independence. The British Government acceded to these demands, and the Federal Union of Burma was formed in February 1947. A constitution was completed in 1947 and independence granted in January 1948.
General Aung San was assassinated with most of his cabinet before the constitution went into effect. This was a major impediment to maintaining peace and stability. Non-Burman ethnic groups were not pleased with the policies of those who replaced Aung San. The years from 1947 to 1962 were tumultuous, with various ethnic groups forming their own armies. In 1962 the military staged a coup and took over the government, and they have ruled the country with an iron fist ever since.
The country is under the tight control of the military-led State Peace and Development Council. General Ne Win dominated the government from 1962 to 1988, first as military ruler, then as self-appointed president, and later as political kingpin. In September 1988 the military deposed Ne Win and established a new ruling junta. (Junta=small group ruling a country especially after a coup.) In 1990 a main opposition party, the National League for Democracy (NLD), won a landslide victory, but the junta refused to hand over power. The NLD leader, Aung San Suu Kyi, was imprisoned, and then transferred to house arrest.
August 8, 1988 was the day of the largest protests in Burma’s history with hundreds of thousands taking part. Students sported their symbol of the fighting peacock, and monks carried their alms bowls upside down to show they would not accept handouts from the military, as a protest. On August 26, Suu Kyi made a speech at Shwedagon Pagoda and became the public face of the democracy movement. Protests continued until September 18, when the military sprayed automatic rifle fire into crowds of protesters. Other demonstrators were carried away in trucks and never seen again. Human rights groups say at least 3,000 people were killed.
After the ruling junta unexpectedly increased fuel prices, tens of thousands of Burmese marched in protest in August 2007, led by prodemocracy activists and Buddhist monks. In late September 2007 the government brutally suppressed the protests, killing at least 13 and arresting thousands. Since then, the ruling generals have raided homes and monasteries, arresting persons suspected of participating in protests.
In October 2007 the junta appointed Aung Kyi Labor Minister, but he remains under house arrest. In May 2008 the junta proceeded with a constitutional referendum, the first vote in Burma since 1990, setting the stage for the 2010 parliamentary elections. Aun San Suu Kyi’s house arrest was due to end in May 2009, but was extended eighteen months after she was convicted for violating its terms.
The current head of state is Senior General Than Shwe, who holds the posts of “Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council” and “Commander in Chief of the Defence Services” as well as Minister of Defense. The current Prime Minister is General Thein Sein, who took over upon the death of General Soe Win in October 2007. The majority of ministry and cabinet posts are held by military officers, with the exceptions of the Ministers of Health, Education, Labour and Ministry of National Planning and Economic Development, posts held by civilians.
Elections are supposed to occur in May, 2010, to end five decades of military rule. World powers are debating new elections laws passed in March 2010, because of concerns that they will prohibit fair, participatory and transparent elections. Suu Kyi continues to be under house arrest, and has not decided whether her party will accept these rules and field candidates. Many in the international community are complaining that these laws fell short of what was expected. Nine US Senators have urged President Barack Obama to appoint a special US representative for Burma and impose additional economic sanctions on the military junta under the Jade Act of 1008 (which was co-sponsored by Vice President Joe Biden, who was then a senator). The greatest concern is that the election laws put supervision of upcoming elections entirely in the hands of a commission appointed by the ruling junta, and require the country’s main opposition party, the NLD, to expel its leader Aung San Suu Kyi and other imprisoned members in order to participate in the vote.
The country’s armed forces are known as the Tatmadaw, which numbers 488,000, and comprises the Army, Navy and Air Force. Burma ranks 12th in the world for its number of active troops in service; the military is very influential in the country. The country imports most of its weapons from Russia, Ukraine, China and India. The country is building a research nuclear reactor near May Myo with help from Russia. It is one of the signatories of the nuclear non-proliferation pact since 1992 and a member of the International Atomic Energy Agency since 1957.
